Celloxy.com

WHAT IS HYPOXIA?

Hypoxia[1] is a condition in which the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply at the tissue level. Hypoxia may be classified as either generalized, affecting the whole body, or local, affecting a region of the body.[2] Although hypoxia is often a pathological condition, variations in arterial oxygen concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during hypoventilation training or strenuous physical exercise.

Hypoxia differs from hypoxemia and anoxemia in that hypoxia refers to a state in which oxygen supply is insufficient, whereas hypoxemia and anoxemia refer specifically to states that have low or zero arterial oxygen supply.[3] Hypoxia in which there is complete deprivation of oxygen supply is referred to as anoxia.

Generalized hypoxia occurs in healthy people when they ascend to high altitude, where it causes altitude sickness leading to potentially fatal complications: high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and high altitude cerebral edema (HACE).[4] Hypoxia also occurs in healthy individuals when breathing mixtures of gases with a low oxygen content, e.g. while diving underwater especially when using closed-circuit rebreather systems that control the amount of oxygen in the supplied air. Mild, non-damaging intermittent hypoxia is used intentionally during altitude training to develop an athletic performance adaptation at both the systemic and cellular level.[5]

In acute or silent hypoxia, a person's oxygen level in blood cells and tissue can drop without any initial warning, even though the individual's chest x-ray shows diffuse pneumonia with an oxygen level below normal.

The 2019 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to William G. Kaelin Jr., Sir Peter J. Ratcliffe, and Gregg L. Semenza in recognition of their discovery of cellular mechanisms to sense and adapt to different oxygen concentrations, establishing a basis for how oxygen levels affect physiological function.[8][9]

Generalized hypoxia

The symptoms of generalized hypoxia depend on its severity and acceleration of onset. In the case of altitude sickness, where hypoxia develops gradually, the symptoms include fatigue, numbness / tingling of extremities, nausea, and cerebral anoxia.[10] These symptoms are often difficult to identify, but early detection of symptoms can be critical.[11][additional citation(s) needed]

In severe hypoxia, or hypoxia of very rapid onset, ataxia, confusion, disorientation, hallucinations, behavioral change, severe headaches, reduced level of consciousness, papilloedema, breathlessness,[10] pallor,[12] tachycardia, and pulmonary hypertension eventually leading to the late signs cyanosis, slow heart rate, cor pulmonale, and low blood pressure followed by heart failure eventually leading to shock and death.[13][14]

Because hemoglobin is a darker red when it is not bound to oxygen (deoxyhemoglobin), as opposed to the rich red color that it has when bound to oxygen (oxyhemoglobin), when seen through the skin it has an increased tendency to reflect blue light back to the eye.[15] In cases where the oxygen is displaced by another molecule, such as carbon monoxide, the skin may appear 'cherry red' instead of cyanotic.[16] Hypoxia can cause premature birth, and injure the liver, among other deleterious effects.

Local hypoxia

If tissue is not being perfused properly, it may feel cold and appear pale; if severe, hypoxia can result in cyanosis, a blue discoloration of the skin. If hypoxia is very severe, a tissue may eventually become gangrenous. Extreme pain may also be felt at or around the site.[citation needed]

Tissue hypoxia from low oxygen delivery may be due to low haemoglobin concentration (anaemic hypoxia), low cardiac output (stagnant hypoxia) or low haemoglobin saturation (hypoxic hypoxia).[17] The consequence of oxygen deprivation in tissues is a switch to anaerobic metabolism at the cellular level. As such, reduced systemic blood flow may result in increased serum lactate.[18] Serum lactate levels have been correlated with illness severity and mortality in critically ill adults and in ventilated neonates with respiratory distress.[18]

Cause

Oxygen passively diffuses in the lung alveoli according to a pressure gradient. Oxygen diffuses from the breathed air, mixed with water vapour, to arterial blood, where its partial pressure is around 100 mmHg (13.3 kPa).[19] In the blood, oxygen is bound to hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells. The binding capacity of hemoglobin is influenced by the partial pressure of oxygen in the environment, as described in the oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve. A smaller amount of oxygen is transported in solution in the blood.

In peripheral tissues, oxygen again diffuses down a pressure gradient into cells and their mitochondria, where it is used to produce energy in conjunction with the breakdown of glucose, fats, and some amino acids.[20]

Hypoxia can result from a failure at any stage in the delivery of oxygen to cells. This can include decreased partial pressures of oxygen, problems with diffusion of oxygen in the lungs, insufficient available hemoglobin, problems with blood flow to the end tissue, and problems with breathing rhythm.

Experimentally, oxygen diffusion becomes rate limiting (and lethal) when arterial oxygen partial pressure falls to 60 mmHg (5.3 kPa) or below.[citation needed]

Almost all the oxygen in the blood is bound to hemoglobin, so interfering with this carrier molecule limits oxygen delivery to the periphery. Hemoglobin increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood by about 40-fold,[21] with the ability of hemoglobin to carry oxygen influenced by the partial pressure of oxygen in the environment, a relationship described in the oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve. When the ability of hemoglobin to carry oxygen is interfered with, a hypoxic state can result.[22]:997–999

Ischemia

Ischemia, meaning insufficient blood flow to a tissue, can also result in hypoxia. This is called 'ischemic hypoxia'. This can include an embolic event, a heart attack that decreases overall blood flow, or trauma to a tissue that results in damage. An example of insufficient blood flow causing local hypoxia is gangrene that occurs in diabetes.[23]

Diseases such as peripheral vascular disease can also result in local hypoxia. For this reason, symptoms are worse when a limb is used. Pain may also be felt as a result of increased hydrogen ions leading to a decrease in blood pH (acidity) created as a result of anaerobic metabolism.[citation needed]

Hypoxemic hypoxia

This refers specifically to hypoxic states where the arterial content of oxygen is insufficient.[24] This can be caused by alterations in respiratory drive, such as in respiratory alkalosis, physiological or pathological shunting of blood, diseases interfering in lung function resulting in a ventilation-perfusion mismatch, such as a pulmonary embolus, or alterations in the partial pressure of oxygen in the environment or lung alveoli, such as may occur at altitude or when diving.

Hypoxic breathing gases

The breathing gas in underwater diving may contain an insufficient partial pressure of oxygen, particularly in malfunction of rebreathers. Such situations may lead to unconsciousness without symptoms since carbon dioxide levels are normal and the human body senses pure hypoxia poorly. Hypoxic breathing gases can be defined as mixtures with a lower oxygen fraction than air, though gases containing sufficient oxygen to reliably maintain consciousness at normal sea level atmospheric pressure may be described as normoxic even when slightly hypoxic. Hypoxic mixtures in this context are those which will not reliably maintain consciousness at sea level pressure. Gases with as little as 2% oxygen by volume in a helium diluent are used for deep diving operations. The ambient pressure at 190 msw is sufficient to provide a partial pressure of about 0.4 bar, which is suitable for saturation diving. As the divers are decompressed, the breathing gas must be oxygenated to maintain a breathable atmosphere.[28]

Inert gas asphyxiation may be deliberate with use of a suicide bag. Accidental death has occurred in cases where concentrations of nitrogen in controlled atmospheres, or methane in mines, has not been detected or appreciated.[29]

other

Hemoglobin's function can also be lost by chemically oxidizing its iron atom to its ferric form. This form of inactive hemoglobin is called methemoglobin and can be made by ingesting sodium nitrite[30][unreliable medical source?] as well as certain drugs and other chemicals.[31]

Anemia

Hemoglobin plays a substantial role in carrying oxygen throughout the body,[21] and when it is deficient, anemia can result, causing 'anaemic hypoxia' if tissue perfusion is decreased. Iron deficiency is the most common cause of anemia. As iron is used in the synthesis of hemoglobin, less hemoglobin will be synthesised when there is less iron, due to insufficient intake, or poor absorption.[22]:997–999

Anemia is typically a chronic process that is compensated over time by increased levels of red blood cells via upregulated erythropoetin. A chronic hypoxic state can result from a poorly compensated anaemia.[22]:997–999

Physiological compensation

Acute

If oxygen delivery to cells is insufficient for the demand (hypoxia), electrons will be shifted to pyruvic acid in the process of lactic acid fermentation. This temporary measure (anaerobic metabolism) allows small amounts of energy to be released. Lactic acid build up (in tissues and blood) is a sign of inadequate mitochondrial oxygenation, which may be due to hypoxemia, poor blood flow (e.g., shock) or a combination of both.[33] If severe or prolonged it could lead to cell death. [34]

In most tissues of the body, the response to hypoxia is vasodilation. By widening the blood vessels, the tissue allows greater perfusion.

By contrast, in the lungs, the response to hypoxia is vasoconstriction. This is known as hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, or "HPV".[36]

Chronic

When the pulmonary capillary pressure remains elevated chronically (for at least 2 weeks), the lungs become even more resistant to pulmonary edema because the lymph vessels expand greatly, increasing their capability of carrying fluid away from the interstitial spaces perhaps as much as 10-fold. Therefore, in patients with chronic mitral stenosis, pulmonary capillary pressures of 40 to 45 mm Hg have been measured without the development of lethal pulmonary edema.[Guytun and Hall physiology]

References

^ Samuel, Jacob; Franklin, Cory (2008). Common Surgical Diseases. New York: Springer. pp. 391–94. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-75246-4_97. ISBN 9780387752457.
^ Das, K. K., Honnutagi, R., Mullur, L., Reddy, R. C., Das, S., Majid, D. S. A., & Biradar, M. S. (2019). Heavy metals and low-oxygen microenvironment—its impact on liver metabolism and dietary supplementation. In Dietary Interventions in Liver Disease (pp. 315-332). Academic Press.
^ West, John B. (1977). Pulmonary Pathophysiology: The Essentials. Williams & Wilkins. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-683-08936-3.
^ Cymerman, A; Rock, PB. "Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers". USARIEM-TN94-2. US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report. Archived from the original on 2009-04-23. Retrieved 2009-03-05.
^ Gore CJ, Clark SA, Saunders PU (September 2007). "Nonhematological mechanisms of improved sea-level performance after hypoxic exposure". Med Sci Sports Exerc. 39 (9): 1600–09. doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e3180de49d3. PMID 17805094.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Levitan, Richard (2020-04-20). "Opinion | The Infection That's Silently Killing Coronavirus Patients". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2020-04-22.
^ "pneumonia" (PDF).
^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2019". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved 2019-10-28.
^ "Hypoxia | GeneTex". www.genetex.com. Retrieved 2019-10-28.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Robinson, Grace; Strading, John; West, Sophie (2009). Oxford Handbook of Respiratory Medicine. Oxford University Press. p. 880. ISBN 978-0199545162.
^ Bergqvist, Pia (15 April 2015). "Preventing Hypoxia: What To Do Now". Flying. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
^ Illingworth, Robin; Graham, Colin; Hogg, Kerstin (2012). Oxford Handbook of Emergency Medicine. Oxford University Press. p. 768. ISBN 978-0199589562.
^ Hillman, Ken; Bishop, Gillian (2004). Clinical Intensive Care and Acute Medicine. Cambridge University Press. p. 685. ISBN 978-1139449366.
^ Longmore, J.; Longmore, Murray; Wilkinson, Ian; Rajagopalan, Supraj (2006). Mini Oxford Handbook of Clinical Medicine. Oxford University Press. p. 874. ISBN 978-0198570714.
^ Ahrens, Thomas; Rutherford Basham, Kimberley (1993). Essentials of Oxygenation: Implication for Clinical Practice. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 194. ISBN 978-0867203325.
^ Ramrakha, Punit; Moore, Kevin (2004). Oxford Handbook of Acute Medicine. Oxford University Press. p. 990. ISBN 978-0198520726.
^ Lacroix, Jacques; Tucci, Marisa; Tinmouth, Alan; Gauvin, France; Karam, Oliver (2011). Pediatric Critical Care. Elsevier. pp. 1162–76. doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-07307-3.10082-5. ISBN 9780323073073.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Kluckow, Martin; Seri, Istvan (2012). Hemodynamics and Cardiology: Neonatology Questions and Controversies. Elsevier. pp. 237–67. doi:10.1016/b978-1-4377-2763-0.00012-3. ISBN 9781437727630.
^ Kenneth Baillie; Alistair Simpson. "Altitude oxygen calculator". Apex (Altitude Physiology Expeditions). Archived from the original on 2017-06-11. Retrieved 2006-08-10. – Online interactive oxygen delivery calculator.
^ Jae-Hwan, Lee; Eun-Kyeong, Shin; Dongoh, Lee; Eui-Bae, Jeung (April 2015). "SAT-532: Expression of Beta-Oxidation Related Genes Under Hypoxic Condition Induced Preeclamptic Model in Vitro and in Vivo". Endocrine Reviews. 36 (2). doi:10.1210/endo-meetings.2015.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Martin, Lawrence (1999). All you really need to know to interpret arterial blood gases (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-683-30604-0.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Nicki R. Colledge; Brian R. Walker; Stuart H. Ralston, eds. (2010). Davidson's principles and practice of medicine. illustrated by Robert Britton (21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7020-3085-7.
^ Marvin E. Levin; Lawrence W. O'Neal; John H. Bowker (15 January 1993). The Diabetic foot. Mosby Year Book. ISBN 978-0-8016-6878-4.
^ West, John B. (2008). Respiratory Physiology: The Essentials (8th ed.). La Jolla: Wolters Kluwer Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 88–89.
^ Douglas CG, Haldane JS, Haldane JB (Jun 12, 1912). "The laws of combination of hemoglobin with carbon monoxide and oxygen". The Journal of Physiology. 44 (4): 275–304. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1912.sp001517. PMC 1512793. PMID 16993128.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Wald, NJ; Idle, M; Boreham, J; Bailey, A (May 1981). "Carbon monoxide in breath in relation to smoking and carboxyhaemoglobin levels". Thorax. 36 (5): 366–69. doi:10.1136/thx.36.5.366. PMC 471511. PMID 7314006.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Netzer, Nikolaus; Strohl, Kingman; Faulhaber, Martin; Gatterer, Hannes; Burtscher, Martin (1 July 2013). "Hypoxia‐Related Altitude Illnesses". Journal of Travel Medicine. 20 (4): 247–55. doi:10.1111/jtm.12017. PMID 23809076.
^ Staff, US Navy (2006). "15". US Navy Diving Manual, 6th revision. United States: US Naval Sea Systems Command. Retrieved 15 June 2008.
^ Milroy, Christopher (Autumn 2018). "Deaths from Environmental Hypoxia and Raised Carbon Dioxide". Academic Forensic Pathology. 8 (1): 2–7. doi:10.23907/2018.001. PMC 6474450. PMID 31240022.
^ Roueché, Berton (1953) Eleven blue men, and other narratives of medical detection. Boston: Little, Brown.
^ "Methemoglobinemia and Medications A to Z". British Columbia Drug and Poison Information Centre. Retrieved 2020-01-31.
^ Pittman, RN (2011). "Regulation of Tissue Oxygenation". Morgan & Claypool Life Sciences. p. Chapter 7.
^ Hobler, K.E.; L.C. Carey (1973). "Effect of acute progressive hypoxemia on cardiac output and plasma excess lactate". Ann Surg. 177 (2): 199–202. doi:10.1097/00000658-197302000-00013. PMC 1355564. PMID 4572785.
^ Fulda, Simone; Gorman, Adrienne M.; Hori, Osamu; Samali, Afshin (2010). "Cellular Stress Responses: Cell Survival and Cell Death". International Journal of Cell Biology. 2010: 214074. doi:10.1155/2010/214074. ISSN 1687-8876. PMC 2825543. PMID 20182529.
^ Arieff, Allen I. (2013). Hypoxia, Metabolic Acidosis, and the Circulation. Springer. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-1461475422.
^ Michiels, Carine (2004). "Physiological and Pathological Responses to Hypoxia". The American Journal of Pathology. 164 (6): 1875–82. doi:10.1016/S0002-9440(10)63747-9. PMC 1615763. PMID 15161623.
^ Pierson, D. J. (2000). "Pathophysiology and clinical effects of chronic hypoxia". Respir Care. 45 (1): 39–51, discussion 51–3. PMID 10771781.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b West, John B.; American College Of Physicians; American Physiological Society (2004). "The Physiologic Basis of High-Altitude Diseases". Annals of Internal Medicine. 141 (10): 789–800. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-141-10-200411160-00010. PMID 15545679.
^ West, John B. (1995). "Oxygen Enrichment of Room Air to Relieve the Hypoxia of High Altitude". Respiration Physiology. 99 (2): 225–32. doi:10.1016/0034-5687(94)00094-G. PMID 7777705.
^ American College of Chest Physicians; American Thoracic Society(September 2013), "Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question", Choosing Wisely: an initiative of the ABIM Foundation, American College of Chest Physicians and American Thoracic Society, retrieved 6 January 2013